Senecio Sp. - Groundsel

Family: Asteraceae (Aster family) ^[E-flora]

"Annual to shrub, from taproot, rhizome, or button-like caudex. Stem: 1–many, simple or branched. Leaf: alternate; mostly basal to evenly distributed; proximal generally ± petioled; middle generally reduced, sessile, often clasping. Inflorescence: heads radiate, disciform, or discoid, generally in cyme-like clusters; involucre cylindric to urn- or bell-shaped, main phyllaries generally 8, 13, or 21 in 1 series, subtended by few to many, generally much-reduced outer phyllaries, reflexed in fruit, green, often black-tipped, linear to narrowly lanceolate, glabrous or hairy; receptacle epaleate. Ray flower: 0–21; ray generally yellow (white, pink-purple), occasionally much-reduced and scarcely exceeding phyllaries. Disk flower: 3–100+; corolla tubular to bell-shaped, lobes erect to recurved, pale to deep yellow; anther tip ± triangular-ovate; style branch tips obtuse or truncate. Fruit: cylindric, generally shallow-ribbed or -angled, glabrous or stiff-hairy; pappus of minutely barbed bristles, white to tan.
1000+ species: worldwide, especially abundant in warm temperate, subtropical and tropical areas at mid to upper elevations. (Latin: old man, from white pappus) [Barkley 2006 FNANM 20:544–570] Many North American species formerly treated as Senecio now in Packera. The common names groundsel, ragwort, and butterweed apply to species of both genera." ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

1. Senecio jacobaea - tansy ragwort ^[E-flora]
2. Senecio pseudoarnica - beach groundsel (Haida Gwaii) ^[E-flora]
3. Senecio sylvaticus - wood groundsel ^[E-flora]
4. Senecio triangularis - arrow-leaved groundsel ^[E-flora]
5. Senecio viscosus - sticky ragwort ^[E-flora]
6. Senecio vulgaris - common groundsel ^[E-flora]

Senecio jacobaea - Tansy ragwort

• General: "Biennial or short-lived perennial herb from a poorly-developed to evident taproot; stems erect, solitary or several, branched above, sparsely to densely white woolly-hairy, 0.2-1 m tall."^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}
• Leaves: "Basal leaves oblanceolate, stalked, 4-20 cm long including the stalk, 2-6 cm wide, mostly 2-3 times pinnately cut, thinly woolly-hairy when young but usually glabrous by flowering time; stem leaves similar, progressively reduced upwards, becoming unstalked."^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}
• Flowers: "Heads with ray and disk flowers, several to numerous in clusters; involucres 2-5 mm tall; involucral bracts oblanceolate, with long-pointed, usually black tips, hairless to sparsely woolly-hairy, margins translucent; bracteoles few, black-tipped; ray flowers yellow, 4-10 mm long; disk flowers yellow."^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}
• Fruits: "Achenes oblong, nerved, those of the disk flowers minutely coarse-hairy, those of the ray flowers glabrous; pappus of white hairlike bristles."^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}
• Habitat / Range: "Mesic to dry fields, clearcuts and pastures in the lowland zone; locally frequent on S Vancouver Island and adjacent lower mainland; introduced from Eurasia."^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}
• Status: Exotic ^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}

Introduction

"Tansy ragwort is an invasive introduced species from Europe that is now found in eastern and western North America, but is absent from the prairies and midwestern states...Biological control methods have been applied to it, including the introduction of the cinnabar moth (tiger moth) (Tyria jacobaeae) to North America, a species which feeds exclusively on tansy ragwort. In our region, tansy ragwort can be confused with common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare), however, tansy ragwort has yellow ray petals, while common tansy lacks ray petals."^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}

Additional Notes

"Tansy ragwort is considered an emerging invasive species in the Vancouver region by the Greater Vancouver Invasive Plant Council (2009). ...It is listed as one of the top fourteen species of concern by the Coastal Invasive Plant Council."^{[IFBC-E-flora-1]}

Senecio pseudoarnica - Beach groundsel (seaside ragwort)

• General: "Perennial herb from an erect to ascending rhizome; stems erect or ascending, solitary, simple or branched, glabrous below, woolly-hairy above, 5-90 cm tall."^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
• Leaves: "Basal leaves usually smaller than the stem leaves, deciduous by flowering time; stem leaves thick, spoon-shaped to oblanceolate, egg-shaped or oblong, broadly stalked to unstalked, 2-25 cm long, 1-10 cm wide, toothed, sparsely to moderately woolly-hairy above and below or nearly glabrous above, not much reduced upwards except in the inflorescence."^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
• Flowers: "Heads with ray and disk flowers, up to 4.5 cm across, solitary to several on glabrous to woolly-hairy stalks in a compact inflorescence; involucres 10-25 mm tall; involucral bracts lance-oblong to more linear, green or purplish, margins translucent, sparsely to moderately woolly-hairy; bracteoles numerous, equal to or longer than the involucral bracts; ray flowers yellow, mostly 10-25 mm long; disk flowers yellow."^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
• Fruits: "Achenes oblong, faintly nerved, glabrous; pappus of white hairlike bristles."^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
• Status: Native. ^[E-flora]
• Habitat / Range: "Moist to mesic sand dunes, beaches and tidal flats in the lowland zone; rare on the N Queen Charlotte Islands; amphiberingian, N to AK, disjunct on the coasts of Labr., NF, PQ, NS and NB, NE Asia."^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}

Senecio sylvaticus - Wood groundsel

• General: "Annual herb from a more or less evident taproot; stems erect, solitary, branched, 15-80 cm tall."^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Leaves: "Basal leaves smaller than the stem leaves, usually deciduous by flowering time; stem leaves lanceolate to oblanceolate, 2-12 cm long, 0.4-4 cm wide, more or less pinnately cut, irregularly toothed, stalked near the base, becoming unstalked upwards, sparsely to densely long-hairy or sometimes nearly glabrous."^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Flowers: "Heads with ray and disk flowers, several to numerous heads on sparsely to densely long-hairy stalks in an open inflorescence; involucres 5-7 mm tall; involucral bracts lanceolate, black-tipped, sparsely long-hairy and sometimes glandular-hairy at the tips; bracteoles minute, inconspicuous or lacking; ray flowers yellow, inconspicuous, mostly 1-2 mm long; disk flowers yellow."^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Fruits: "Achenes oblong, faintly ribbed, white stiff-hairy; pappus of white hairlike bristles."^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Ecological Indicator Information: "Shade-intolerant, submontane to subalpine, European forb introduced to Pacific and At1antic North America. Occurs in maritime to submaritime climates on very moist to wet, nitrogen-rich soils; its occurrence decreases with increasing elevation and continentality. Scattered to plentiful, occasionally dominant, in non-forested communities on cutover, fire-disturbed, or continuously disturbed sites, where it inhabits exposed mineral soils. Often associated with Anaphalis margaritacea, Hieraciumalbiflorum, Hypochaeris radicata, Holcus lanatus, and Mycelis muralis. A nitrophytic species characteristic of early-seral communities."^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Status Exotic ^[E-flora-3]
• Habitat / Range "Mesic to dry roadsides, clearcuts and disturbed areas in the lowland zone; frequent in coastal and SW BC; introduced from Europe."^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}

Senecio triangularis - Arrow-leaved groundsel

• Synonyms/Alternate Names
  • Senecio gibbsonsii Greene 5
  • Senecio triangularis var. angustifolius G.N. Jones 5
• General: "Perennial herb from a fibrous-rooted, woody stem-base or rhizome; stems erect, solitary or few, branched above, glabrous to sparsely short-hairy above, 0.2-1.5 m tall." 5
• Leaves: "Basal leaves triangular to heart-shaped, squared-off at the base; strongly toothed, stalked, 2.5-10 cm long including the stalks, 0.4-4.5 cm wide, hairless except for short hairs on the veins beneath, sometimes deciduous by flowering time; stem leaves similar, larger, 2.5-25 cm long, 0.4-8.5 cm wide, gradually reduced upwards, becoming unstalked." 5
• Flowers: "Heads with ray and disk flowers, few to more often numerous on sparsely hairy stalks in a short, flat-topped inflorescence; involucres 7-12 mm tall; involucral bracts lanceolate, conspicuously black-tipped, sometimes also sparsely hairy or rarely with inconspicuous unstalked glands at the tips; bracteoles conspicuous, black-tipped, hairy; ray fowers yellow, mostly 7-14 mm long; disk flowers yellow." 5
• Fruits: "Achenes oblong, faintly ribbed, glabrous; pappus of white hairlike bristles." 5
• Ecological Indicator Information: "A shade-tolerant to very shade-intolerant, montane to alpine, Western North American forb distributed equally in the Pacific and Cordilleran regions. Occurs on very moist to wet, nitrogen-rich soils within alpine tundra, boreal. cool temperate, and cool mesothermal climates; its occurrence increases with precipitation. Scattered to plentiful in meadow­like communities and the herbaceous understory of open-canopy forests on water-receiving and water-collecting sites. A nitrophytic species characteristic of Moder and Mull humus forms." 5
• Status: Exotic 5
• Habitat/Range: "Moist to mesic meadows, streambanks, avalanche tracks and forest openings from the lowland to lower alpine zones; common throughout BC; N to S AK, S YT and SW NT, E to SK and S to NM and CA." 5

Senecio viscosus - Sticky ragwort

• General: "Annual or biennial herb from a taproot; stems erect, solitary, usually branched, sticky-glandular, 10-60 cm tall." 6
• Leaves: "Basal leaves smaller than the stem leaves, usually deciduous by flowering time; stem leaves lanceolate to oblanceolate, stalked to unstalked, 2.5-10 cm long, 1-6 cm wide, deeply pinnately lobed, the segments again toothed or lobed, sticky-glandular, not much reduced upwards." 6
• Flowers: "Heads with ray and disk flowers, few to numerous on sticky-glandular stalks in an open inflorescence; involucres 7-10 mm tall; involucral bracts lanceolate, sticky-glandular, green, margins papery, faintly black-tipped; bracteoles few, inconspicous; ray flowers yellow, mostly 1-4 mm long; disk flowers yellow." 6
• Fruits: "Achenes oblong, faintly ribbed, glabrous; pappus of white hairlike bristles." 6
• Status: Exotic 6
• Habitat / Range: "Dry to mesic roadsides, waste places and disturbed areas; infrequent in coastal, SW and SC BC, locally common in WC BC; introduced from Europe." 6

Senecio vulgaris - Common groundsel

• General: "Annual or biennial herb with a more or less evident taproot; stems erect, solitary, branched, glabrous to sparingly long-hairy, 10-55 cm tall." 4
• Leaves: "Basal leaves oblanceolate to elliptic, stalked, 0.8-3 cm long, 0.3-1 cm wide, coarsely toothed or lobed, nearly glabrous to long-hairy, soon deciduous; stem leaves larger, 2-10 cm long, 0.5-4.5 cm wide, oblanceolate, coarsely toothed to more often pinnately cut, nearly glabrous to long-hairy, not greatly reduced upwards, with ear-like lobes, these clasping at the bases." 4
• Flowers: "Heads discoid, several to numerous on glabrous to long-hairy stalks in an open inflorescence; involucres 5-8 mm tall; involucral bracts lanceolate, green, black-tipped, glabrous, margins translucent, hairy at the tips; bracteoles numerous, conspicuous, black-tipped; discoid; disk flowers yellow." 4
• Fruits: "Achenes oblong, faintly ribbed, bristly-hairy; pappus of white hairlike bristles."
• Ecological Indicator Information: "Shade-intolerant, submontane to subalpine, European forb introduced trans­continentally. Occurs in maritime to submaritime climates on very moist to wet, nitrogen-rich soils; its occurrence decreases with increasing elevation and continentality. Scattered to plentiful, occasionally dominant, in non-forested communities on cutover, fire-disturbed, or continuously disturbed sites, where it inhabits exposed mineral soils. Often associated with Anaphalis margaritacea, Hieraciumalbiflorum, Hypochaeris radicata, Holcus lanatus, and Mycelis muralis. A nitrophytic species characteristic of early-seral communities." 4
• Status: Exotic 4
• Habitat/Range: "Mesic to dry roadsides, disturbed areas and gardens; common in WC and SW BC, rare elsewhere in S BC; introduced from Europe." 4

Hazards

"Most ragworts should be considered potentially poisonous..." [CPPM]

• Livestock Poisoning: In Britain, ragwort poisoning causes tremendous economic losses in livestock.[CPPM] "The pyrrolizidine alkaloid content in the leaves of different Senecio spp. varies widely, depending on the time of year or developmental stage at which the plant was collected (Johnson et al., 1985)" [Houghton EHMP] "...alkaloids of the Crotalaria and Senecio species... cause liver cirrhosis in grazing cattle." [AlkChem&Bio14]
• Contaminant: In some parts of the world, such as Africa and the West Indies, humans have suffered from chronic ragwort poisoning caused by eating bread made from flour contaminated with seeds of ragwort species or by drinking medicinal tea from some species.[CPPM]
  • Honey: Senecio douglasii var. longilobus, Senecio jacobaea, Senecio vulgaris; "...honey made from nectar of Senecio contain the toxic alkaloids." [HPIP Shih]
  • Breast milk: "The pyrrolizidine alkaloids in these species can also be accumulated and excreted through the milk of cows and other animals that feed on them and, through the milk, can be toxic to infants and young animals." [CPPM]
• Symptoms "of human poisoning include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, headache, enlarged liver, apathy, and emaciation. Additionally, people may be harrned indirectly from ragwort-tainted milk or honey. Some ragwort species also cause contact dermatitis.[CPPM]
  • Senecio douglasii var. longilobus, Senecio jacobaea, Senecio vulgaris; "Substantial short-term exposure may cause acute hepatitis, and chronic exposure to lower levels (including Senecio in herbal teas) may cause hepatic veno-occlusive disease (Budd–Chiari syndrome) and in some cases pulmonary hypertension." [HPIP Shih]
  • S. vulgaris, S. viscosus, S. sylvaticus; All parts of the plant are poisonous to many mammals, including humans. The toxin affects the liver and has a cumulative affect.[9,65]
  • S. aureus, S. cineraria, S. jacobaea, S. nemorensis, S. vulgaris ; "Use of Senecio species can result in potentially fatal hepatic veno-occlusive disease in humans, with symptoms of abdominal pain and vomiting with ascites. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis (VOD) reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 mg/kg to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
• Pregnancy: Senecio Sp; Tetrogenic - Avoid during pregnancy. [BMWH]
• S. jacobaea; All parts of the plant are poisonous.[4,19] The plant contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, in isolation these substances are highly toxic to the liver and have a cumulative affect even when the whole plant is consumed.[65,254] ^[PFAF] "Tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) is the most nororious and is eonsidered in Britain to be one of the most important of all poisonous plants. It contains a wide spectrum of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, including senecionine, seneciphylline, jaconine, and jacobine. They are apparently metabolized in the liver to bound pyrrole derivatives, both soluble and insoluble, that are highly toxic and carcinogenic. The toxins are not destroyed by drying or storage." [CPPM] "Countless experiments have shown the plant to be acutely and chronically poisonous in animals." "Internal use of ragwort is not recommended."
• S. pseudoarnica; Although no mention of toxicity has been seen for this species, it belongs to a genus that contains a number of plants with a cumulative poisonous effect on the liver[65]. Some caution is advised. ^[PFAF]
• S. vulgaris: "Groundsel should not be taken internally because hepatotoxicity and carcinogenicity are possible due to the pyrrolizidine alkaloids with 1,2-unsaturated necic parent substances in its makeup." ^[PDR]

Edible Uses

• Leaves:
  • S. vulgaris; "Cooked or raw.[7,105] The young leaves have been used in many areas as a salad, though this is very inadvisable, see the notes on toxicity at the top of the page.[7]" ^[PFAF]
• The Fleshy Stems & Young Leaves:
  • Senecio pseudo-Arnica "Leaves, stems, root, top of shoot" - Harvested, in summer, in Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta for food. [Helaine_Selin]
  • S. pseudoarnica; "Cooked[105, 177, 257]. Only the young plant should be used and it should be cooked[257]. Some caution is advised, see the notes above on toxicity." ^[PFAF]

Other Uses

• Dye:
  • S. jacobaea; "A good green dye is obtained from the leaves, though it is not very permanent.[4,115] A yellow dye is obtained from the flowers when alum is used as a mordant.[4,115,168] Brown and orange can also be obtained.[168]" ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

S. vulgaris; Groundsel has a long history of herbal use and, although not an official plant, it is still often used by herbalists.[4] ^[PFAF]

• Whole Herb
  • S. vulgaris - It is often used as a poultice and is said to be useful in treating sickness of the stomach, whilst a weak infusion is used as a simple and easy purgative.[4] The plant can be harvested in May and dried for later use, or the fresh juice can be extracted and used as required.[4] Use with caution.[21] This plant should not be used by pregnant women.[7] A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant.[9] It is used in the treatment of menstrual disorders and nose bleeds.[9] ^[PFAF] "Groundsel is the flowering plant of Senecio vulgaris. The herb is gathered in uncultivated regions and dried in the shade." ^[PDR]
  • S. jacobaea;
    • Seed, leaves & Flowers: "Ragwort can be applied topically to stings, leg ulcers, and ulcers of the oral cavity. Only external use is recommended." [Skimore-Roth MHH]
    • Internal Use: "The plant is harvested as it comes into flower and is dried for later use[9]. Use with caution[21], when applied internally it can cause severe damage to the liver[9]. See also the notes on toxicity." ^[PFAF]
    • Homeopathic: "A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant[9]. It is used in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea and other female complaints, internal haemorrhages and other internal disorders[9]." ^[PFAF]
  • S. sylvaticus; "The plant is detergent and antiscorbutic.[4]" ^[PFAF]
• Leaves:
  • S. viscosus; "The leaves are carminative and emetic.[4]" ^[PFAF]
  • S. jacobaea; "An emollient poultice is made from the leaves[4]." ^[PFAF]
    
  • S. pseudoarnica; "A poultice of the leaves has been used to drain cuts and boils[257]." ^[PFAF]
• Juice
  • S. jacobaea; "The juice of the plant is cooling and astringent, it is used as a wash in burns, sores, cancerous ulcers and eye inflammations[4]. It makes a good gargle for ulcerated mouths and throats and is also said to take away the pain of a bee sting[4]. Caution is advised here since the plant is poisonous and some people develop a rash from merely touching this plant[K]." ^[PFAF]
    • Lotion: 1 part drug to 5 parts ethanol (10%). The lotion is applied externally "for the treatment of rheumatic arthritis." [PDR]
• Root
  • S. jacobaea; "A decoction of the root is said to be good for treating internal bruises and wounds[4]." ^[PFAF]

Further Medicinal Usage

• Dosages:
  • S. jacobaea - "Do not take it (JAD); 1 part herb:5 ethanol (10%) fruit topical application (HH2; PH2); 2 g herb tincture several ×/day up to 15 g (MAD); 1–3 g fluid herb extract (MAD); 40–60 g herb juice (MAD)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • S. vulgaris - "Do not take it (JAD); 2 g tincture several ×/day, up to 15 g (MAD); 1–3 fl extract (MAD); 40–60 g juice (MAD)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
• Well Referenced Indication
  • S. vulgaris - "Dysmenorrhea (f; EFS; HH2; MAD; PH2);" ^{[HMH Duke]}

Phytochemicals

• Alkaloids "Senecio species synthesize PAs [pyrrolizidine alkaloids] in roots but store them preferentially in the inflorescences." [AlkChem&Bio9]
  • Senecio jacobaea; "Seneciphilline, jacobine, jacoline, jaconine, jacozine, senecioine" [AlkChem&Bio10] "The major toxic alkaloid... is jacobine in Senecio jacobaea (“stinking willie”)." [Klasseen CDT] "Jacobine [18], (-)-Othosenine [18], Renardine [18]" [Azimova Alkaloids]
    • Phytochemicals:
      • "Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (0.1-0.9%): the alkaloid spectrum depends upon the chemotype. Jacobine chemorype: chief alkaloid jacobine; erucifoline chemotype: chief alkaloids erucifoline and O-acetylerucifoline"
      • "Volatile oil (traces)" ^[PDR]
  • Senecio vulgaris ; "Senecioine, senecioine N-oxide" [AlkChem&Bio10] "The major toxic alkaloid in Senecio vulgaris (common groundsel) is retrorsine" [Klasseen CDT] "Senecionine [41]" [Azimova Alkaloids]
    • "Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (up to 0.16% in the fresh foliage): chief alkaloids are senecionine, seneciphylline"
    • "Flavonoids: including among others, isorhamnetin-3-O-glucosides, isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinosides, isorhamnetin-3-monosulphate"
    • "Volatile oil (traces)" ^[PDR]

Actions

• Whole Herb:
  • "Madaus, rightly or wrongly, says that S. jacobaea and S. vulgaris have the same effects. So most of the MAD entries below have also been transcribed to S. vulgaris and may really belong only there." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • S. jacobaea; "The plant is astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue and expectorant[9, 21]." [PFAF] "Antiperistaltic (1; HHB); Antispasmodic (f; EFS); Carcinogenic (1; AEH; PH2); Depurative (f; EFS); Detergent (f; EFS); Diaphoretic (f; EFS); Emmenagogue (f; EFS); Hemostat (f; EFS; MAD); Hepatotoxic (1; AEH; PH2); Laxative (f; EFS); Pectoral (f; EFS); Poison (1; PH2)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • S. vulgaris; "anthelmintic, antiscorbutic, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue and purgative.[4,9,21,54]" [PFAF] "Carcinogenic (1; AEH; PH2); Diaphoretic (f; EFS); Diuretic (f; EFS); Emetic (f; EFS); Emmenagogue (f; EFS); Hemostat (f; EFS; MAD); Hepatotoxic (1; AEH; PH2); Laxative (f; EFS); Poison (1; PH2); Vermifuge (f; EFS); Vulnerary (f; EFS)." ^{[HMH Duke]} "Diaphoretic, antiscorbutic, purgative, diuretic. Generally used to gently stimulate vomiting... had a reputation for only inducing vomiting if stomach illness was present." [Buhner SHHB]
• Toxicity:
  • S. vulgaris
    • "LD50 (mixed alkaloids) = 140 mg/kg orl rat (HH2)." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Cultivation

• Senecio jacobaea; "Ragwort can be eradicated by pulling it up just before it comes into flower, or by cutting it down as the flowers begin to open (this latter may need to be repeated about six weeks later)[4]. Ragwort is a good food plant for the caterpillars of many butterfly and moth species, and is one of only two species that provide food for cinnabar moth caterpillars." [????]
• Senecio vulgaris; "A common weed of cultivated land, it does not require cultivation. Groundsel is a good food plant for the caterpillars of many butterfly and moth species, and is one of only two species that provide food for cinnabar moth caterpillars. One report states that this plant was formerly cultivated as a food crop for livestock[54]! Since the plant is a cumulative toxin this use is most questionable." [????]
• Senecio viscosus, Senecio viscosus; "Some mammals, such as rabbits, do not seem to be harmed by the plant, and will often seek it out[4]. Various birds also eat the leaves and seeds[4]." [????]
• Bioremediation: "For the acceleration of vegetation development, seeds of Senecio species (S. viscosus, S. vernalis), Reseda luteola and Inula graveolens are brought into the mine spoil ground of the former sinking pond." [Kowarik WUW]
  • S. vulgaris: "Plant candidates must be resistant to atrazine, but if chloroplastic resistance is observed, there is no ecological benefit as no transformation of the target compound occurs. Such cases of resistance have been described in biotypes of Senecio vulgaris (56), Chenopodium album (57), Brassica campestris, Solanum nigrum, P. annua, Setaria viridis, and Phalaris paradoxa (58)." [Willey PMR]
• Root-Parasite Interactions: "In the context of phloem mobility of PAs, it is most interesting to note that hemiparasitic herbs obtain PAs via root parasitism from their PA-bearing host plants. Thus, species of the North American genus Castilleja (Scrophulariaceae) obtain PAs from their hosts Senecio atratus and Senecio triangularis (Stermitz and Harris, 1987), and very recently the transfer of PAs again from S. triangularis to its root parasites Pedicularis groenlandica and Pedicularis bracteosa were observed (Schneider and Stermitz, 1990). It seems reasonable to assume that his interspecific PA transfer occurs via phloem connections." [Rosenthal HerbV1]
• Aphid Hosts:
  • Senecio spp.; "Acyrthosiphon malvae, rubi; [Anoecia corni]; Aphis sp. nr lugentis (Utah, BMNH colln); Blanchardaphis capitophoroides; Eumyzus nokuli; Euthoracaphis longisetosa; [Nipponaphis sp.]; [Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae]; Toxoptera aurantii; Uroleucon bicolor, compositae, formosanum" ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}
  • Senecio jacobaea; "Aphis fabae, jacobaeae, lugentis, [terricale]; Aulacorthum solani; Brachycaudus cardui, helichrysi, lateralis; Eriosoma patchiae; [Geoica utricularia]; [Macrosiphoniella subterranea]; Macrosiphum euphorbiae; [‘Macrosiphum jacobaeabalsamita’ (Rafinesque) of Hottes (1931)]; Myzus persicae; Uroleucon cirsicola, sonchi, syrdariense" ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}
  • Senecio viscosus; "Brachycaudus cardui; Macrosiphum euphorbiae; [Uroleucon (Uromelan) sp. (as jaceae)]" ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}
  • Senecio vulgaris "Aphis fabae, gossypii, jacobaeae, solanella; Aulacorthum solani; Brachycaudus cardui, helichrysi, lateralis; Macrosiphum euphorbiae; Myzus ascalonicus, ornatus, persicae; Neomyzus circumflexus; Uroleucon ambrosiae, [Uroleucon (Uromelan) sp. (as jaceae)]" ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}
  • S. vulgaris var. alpina; Volutaphis alpinae ^{[Blackman AWHPS]}
• Insect Host Plant:
  • S. triangularis:
    • Neacoryphus bicrucis;
      • Adult: "Pronotum red with two black spots anteriorly; wings red and edged with white: scutellum and wing membrane black and edged with white." [Haggard IP]
        • Body Length: 9 mm.
      • Food: "Adult and nymph: The groundsel Senecio triangularis." [Haggard IP]
      • Found: "Range unknown but probably same as host" [Haggard IP]
  • Alkaloid Bioaccumulation:
    • Callimorpha jacobaeae
      • "Some of these species are specialists that are restricted to a certain food plant, e.g. Tyria jacobaeae, feeding on Senecio jacobaea; others are polyphagously feeding on various PA plants. These generalists are often attracted by PAs to PA-containing food sources. PAs seem to function as attractants and feeding-stimulants. Creatonotos larvae, for instance, even consume glass-fibre discs impregnated with PAs [19]. This feeding behaviour is called "pharmacophagy" [AlkChem&Bio9] "...it was shown that the cinnabar moth (Callimorpha jacobaeae L. or Tyria jacobaeae) sequesters pyrrolizidine alkaloids from the leaves of ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) for it own chemical defense. The alkaloids are found in the plant, larvae, and adult moth (59). The proportions of these pyrrolizidine alkaloids differ quantitatively between the plant and the insect body tissues. The compounds are localized in the imago of the pupa and the integument of the larvae which suggests they may play an active role in the defense of the insect during development (60). Of the six main alkaloids found in the plant, the three dominants are jacobine, jacozine, and jacoline. In the insect a different three alkaloids dominate, senecionine, seneciphylline, and integerrimine. In the frass of the moth larvae the quantitative distribution of the alkaloids mimics that of the plant (59)." [AlkChem&Bio8]
    • "The honeydew of the green peach aphid (Myzus persica) feeding on 5. vulgaris was found to contain senecionine (1) and its JV-oxide [226], and a specialist aphid (Aphis jacobaeae) was shown to sequester large quantities of PAs from three Senecio species [227]."[AlkChem&Bio9]
  • Biocontrol
    • S. jacobaea "A classic successful case of biocontrol is the tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobaea)." [Apostol RPNW]
      • "Poor synchronization of life stages also appears to be a major factor in the failure of a seed fly Botanophila jacobaeae to establish in parts of New Zealand for the control of ragwort, Senecio jacobaea (Dymock 1988). As a result, 80–90 % of ragwort seeds escape predation (Dymock 1987)." [Ecological Studies Vol. 186]
      • "The biological control programmes against S. jacobaea in the USA and elsewhere had previously concentrated on the use of the defoliating moth T. jacobaeae from the weed's European native range but without much success. More recently the European halticid flea beetle L. jacobaeae, the larvae of which bore into the biennial rootstock of the weed and are restricted to certain Senecio spp., has been released and a marked decline of this pasture weed was subsequently recorded (Hawkes 1968; Frick 1970; Hawkes and Johnson 1977)." [Holzner BEW]
        • "Caterpillars of the cinnabar moth Tyria jacobaeae feed on species of Senecio (e.g. ragwort, Senecio jacobaea, and , Senecio vulgaris) with impunity, building up levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in their bodies (in the form of non-toxic N-oxides). This makes them distasteful to predators and also potentially toxic should the predator convert the alkaloids into the free bases." [MNP Dewick]

Propagation

• S. pseudoarnica; "Seed - sow spring in a greenhouse and only just cover the seed. Make sure the compost does not dry out. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and plant them out in early summer if they have grown sufficiently. Otherwise, grow them on in the greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter and plant them out the following year after the last expected frosts. Division in spring[200]. Root cuttings in early spring[200]." [PFAF]
• Senecio vulgaris; "Seed - it doesn't need any encouragement from us." [????]

Other Senecio Sp.

"There are 2,000 to 3,000 species of Senecio, many of which contain a toxic concentration of pyrrolizidine alkaloids." [HPIP Shih] "Rubiolo et al. [81] evaluated the mutagenicity of a series of pyrrolizidine alkaloids and extracts of several Italian Senecio species containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids including Senecio inaeguidens, S. fuchii, and S. cacaliastes." [ModPhyt] "All 1500 species of the mega-genus are believed to contain them, including the common ragwort (S. jacobeae) (Harborne and Baxter 1993)." [Pengelly TCMP]

• Smoke:
  • Senecio Sp.: "The Navajo living near the Canyon de Chelly in Arizona smoked groundsel during several of their ceremonies (Dunmire and Tierney 1997)." [UAPDS]
• Constituents in the Genus
  • "More than 100 furanoeremophilanes are described as constituents in higher plants 2, chiefly in Senecio species..." [Breitmaier Terpenes]
  • "senecionine... from Senecio species is a diester of retronecine with senecic acid." [MNP Dewick]
  • 8-Hydroxy-6-methoxymaturinone -
    • Occurrence: "aerial parts of Senecio linifolius, 251 leaves of S. canescens 285 (Compositae); aerial parts of S. linifolius.251" [Thomson NOQ]
  • "The pyrrolizine content in Senecio jacobaea is approximately 0.2% dry weight.9" [Barceloux MTNS]
  • "S. flaccidus (S. douglasii subsp. longilobus) contains four pyrrolizidine alkaloids comprising up to about 2% dry weight with retrorsine being the major alkaloid." [Barceloux MTNS]
  • "Unlike most other Senecio species, Riddell ’ s ragwort (Senecio riddellii Torr. & Gray) contains primarily one alkaloid (i.e., riddelliine) at concentrations ranging up to 18% dry weight.9" [Barceloux MTNS]
  • "Senkirkine is a constituent of numerous Senecio species including Senecio kirkii Hook. F. ex Kirk, Senecio rodriguezii Willk. ex Rodr., and Senecio jacobaea L. as well as Tussilago farfara L. (coltsfoot)." [Barceloux MTNS]
  • "The main pyrrolizidine alkaloids in S. rodriguezii are retronecine - based (seneciphylline, seneciphyllinine) and otonecine - based (senkirkine, acetylsenkirkine) alkaloids..." [Barceloux MTNS]
  • "...the main alkaloid in S. leucanthemifolius Poiret is integerrimine.22" [Barceloux MTNS]
• Mycorrhizal
  • "AM symbiosis was also reported in four Ni hyper accumulating representatives of the Asteraceae: Senecio anomalochrous, S. coronatus, Berkheya codii and B. zeyherii from South Africa." [Varma Myco]
  • Senecio graveolens "Wedd. (Asteraceae). strong-scented groundsel. The leaves and stems were burned as incense by the pre-Altiplanic people of Chile (Aldunate et al. 1983)." [UAPDS]

A brief look at a few random species of the genera Senecio;

• Senecio ambavilla
  • "Senecio ambavilla, a folk remedy of La Reunion Island, had anti-HSV-1 and anti-poliovirus activities (Rajbhandari et al., 2001)." [Houghton EHMP]
• Senecio aureus - Life-Root, Squaw Weed
  • Habitat: "The plant is indigenous to North America." ^[PDR]
  • Characteristics: "The herb has a bitter and astringent taste. The smell is slightly acrid." ^[PDR]
  • Hazards: "...Contains toxic PAs (FAD). Should not be taken internally (PHR; PH2)... Due to PAs, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Liferoot should not be ingested” (CAN)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Activities: "Abortifacient (f; CRC); Analgesic (f; CRC); Antipyretic (f; CRC); Astringent (f; CRC; PHR; PH2); Bitter (1; PH2); Carcinogenic (1; PH2); Contraceptive (f; DEM); Depurative (f; DEM); Diaphoretic (f; CRC; DEM; FEL); Diuretic (1; CRC; FAD; PHR; PH2); Emmenagogue (1; APA; CRC; EFS; FEL; PHR; PH2); Expectorant (f; CRC); Hemostat (f; APA); Hepatotoxic (1; APA; PH2); Litholytic (f; CRC); Pectoral (f; CRC; EFS; FEL; PNC); Stimulant (f; CRC); Tonic (f; CRC; EFS); Uterotonic (f; CRC; PNC); Vulnerary (f; APA; CRC; EFS)." ^{[HMH Duke]} "Liferoot is stated to possess uterine tonic, diuretic and mild expectorant properties. Traditionally, it has been used in the treatment of functional amenorrhoea, menopausal neurosis and leucorrhoea (as a douche).(G7, G64)"
    • "Life root, also known as ragwort, is a time-honored “female regulator” that has been used consistently in traditional herbal medicine for menstrual cramps, menorrhagia, suppressed menstruation, and other disturbances of the reproductive tract. It is a classic uterine tonic that has been used to tonify a soft, less-than-firm uterus, including laxity of the uterine ligaments. It adds tone and structure to the nervous and muscular structures of the reproductive female organs and regulates the quantity of the monthly flow." [Hudson WENM]
  • Dosages: "Do not take it (APA); 1–4 g herb 3 ×/day (HH2); 2–4 g dry herb or root (APA; PNC);" ^{[HMH Duke]} "The medicinal parts are the fresh plant harvested during the flowering season and the dried herb." ^[PDR]
  • Phytochemicals:
    • "Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: chief alkaloids are floridanine, florosenine, otosenine" ^[PDR]
    • "Sesquiterpenes of the eremophilane-type: including among others, ligularenolide, tetrahydroligularenolide, dehydrofukinone, trans-9-oxofuranoeremophilane" ^[PDR]
    • "Flavonoids: including among others, kaempferol-3-O-glucosyl acetate, quercetin-3-O-glucosyl acetate" ^[PDR]
• Senecio bicolor - Dusty-Miller
  • Habitat: "The plant is indigenous to [the] Mediterranean region, naturalized in North America and cultivated as an ornamental plant in many countries." ^[PDR]
  • Medicinal Parts: "The medicinal parts are the fresh plant harvested before flowering, the herb of the flowering plant, and the whole fresh, flowering plant." "Cineraria juice is the juice of the whole Senecio cinerarian plant." ^[PDR]
  • Unproven Uses: "Though no longer recommended, the plant previously was administered for ailments of the eye, as an emmenagogic, and in cataplasms and oral rinses." ^[PDR]
  • Homeopathic Uses: "In homeopathy, the juice is used to treat eye-sight problems (for the treatment of spots before the eyes), migraine, and as an emmenagogue." "Dusty Miller should not be taken internally (except in homeopathic dosages)"^[PDR]
    • Phytochemicals:
      • "Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (0.9% in the blossoming foliage): including, among others, jaconine, jacobine, otosenine, retrorsine, senecionine, seneciphylline"
      • Polyynes ^[PDR]
• Senecio cineraria - Dusty-Miller
  • Activities: — "Carcinogenic (1; PH2); Emmenagogue (f; PH2); Hepatotoxic (f; PH2); Mutagenic (1; HH2); Poison (1; HH2; USD)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Indications: — "Cataract (f; EFS); Migraine (f; PH2); Ophthalmia (f; PH2)....Don’t take it (JAD, PH2)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
• Senecio latifolius and retrorsus;
  • "the consumption of species of South African Senecio spp. such as Senecio latifolius and Senecio retrorsus (Asteraceae) that contain PAs resulted in hepatotoxicosis [24]. It was shown that exposure to PA through the use of herbal remedies also may be a contributing factor to the high rates of liver cancer and cirrhosis seen in Africa [24,25]." [Kuete TSAMP]
• Senecio latifolius (South Africa) [Kuete TSAMP]
  • Leaves in water - "Wounds, burns, and abortion" [Kuete TSAMP]
• Senecio magnificus;
  • Alkaloids "Senecionine, integerrimine" [AlkChem&Bio10]
• Senecio mikanioides;
  • Alkaloids "Sarracine, sarracine N-oxide" [AlkChem&Bio10]
• Senecio nemorensis - Alpine Ragwort
  • Habitat: "The plant grows in many regions of southern and western Europe and is cultivated in some eastern European countries". ^[PDR]
  • Activities: - "Carcinogenic (1; HHB; PH2); Hemostat (1; HHB; PH2); Hepatotoxic (1; HHB; PH2); Hypoglycemic (1; PH2); Hypotensive (f; BRU)." "The drug is hemostyptic and hypoglycemic. The pyrrolizidine alkaloids are hepatotoxic and carcinogenic." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Indications — "Bleeding (1; BRU; HHB; PH2); Diabetes (1; PH2); High Blood Pressure (f; BRU; PH2); Hyperglycemia (1; PH2); Odontosis (f; PH2); Uterostimulant (f; PH2)....Do not take (JAD)." ^{[HMH Duke]} "Folk medicine uses of Life Root have included diabetes mellitus, hemorrhage, high blood pressure, spasms and as a uterine stimulant. The drug is also used in bleeding as a result of tooth extraction"^[PDR]
  • Notes: " Some data (HHB) apply to ssp. fuchsii. " ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Dosage: Herb: "A cup of the tea may be taken several times a day." (Not recommended) ^[PDR] "Do not take (JAD). Steep 1 tsp 5–10 minutes in cup hot water; take several times a day as needed (PH2). (Still, PH2 says it should not be taken internally.)" ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Phytochemicals: (Herb)
    • "Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (0.01-0.1%): including among others, senecionine, fuchsisencionine. 7-angeloylretronecin, bulgarsenine, nemorensin, platyphyllin, sarracin" ^[PDR]
    • "Sesquiterpenes of the eremophilane-type: including among others, nemosenine A-D" ^[PDR]
    • "Flavonoids: including among others, rutin, quercitrin" ^[PDR]
    • "Hydroxycoumarins: including among odiers, esculetin" ^[PDR]
    • "Volatile oil (0.1%)" ^[PDR]
• Senecio palmensis: "11-B-hydroxy-5a-(angeloyloxy)-silphinen-3-one and 11-B,5a-dihydroxysilphinen-3-one reported from Senecio palmensis (Asteraceae), possessed strong antifeedant activity against Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Mullin et al. 1997)." [Singh APB]
• Senecio quadridentatus;
  • Alkaloids "Senecioine, seneciphylline, retrorsine" [AlkChem&Bio10]
• Senecio pseudotites "...a ruderal shrub common above 3,100 m. The leaves are applied in a poultice for bruises, rheumatism, and 'bad air'. In the early colonial period, it was used as a depurative (CaBO: 1:224-4)" [Gade PMLP]
• Senecio serratuloides (South Africa) [Kuete TSAMP]
  • Leaves; dichloromethane: "Cuts, swellings, burns, sores, blood purifiers, headaches [17,18]." [Kuete TSAMP]
• Senecio squalidus - Oxford Ragwort
  • "Oxford ragwort is not a true species, but actually a hybrid derived from two other Senecio species—S. aethnensis and S. chrysanthemifolius—that grow on the slopes of Mount Etna in an altitudinal zone of 3,200–3,600 feet (1,000–1,800 m) between those of the two parental species (Abbott et al. 2000, 2002)." [Prance TCHP]
  • Toxic: "All parts of the plant, especially the leaves, contain alkaloids (jacobine, seneciphylline) that cause irreversible liver damage in horses, cattle, goats, and humans." [Prance TCHP]
  • Noxious Weed: "It is one of the most rapidly spreading alien weeds in Europe and occurs in Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Crete, Italy (including its native Sicily), Romania, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia. It has been declared a noxious weed in California." [Prance TCHP]
• Senecio vernalis
  • Alkaloids:
    • "Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the plant Senecio vernalis (Asteraceae) have been implicated in the poisoning of cattle [121]. The toxic agents in this plant include three closely related alkaloids: senecionine, senkirkin, and seneciphyllin." [Kuete TSAMP]
  • Bioaccumulation of Alkaloids:
    • "Two examples of pyrrolizidine alkaloids are (35,5J?,85)-3-heptyl-5-methylpyrrolizidine (77) [49] which is found in the venom of cryptic thief ants from the genera Monomonium and Solenopsis, and retrorsine (78) isolated from from Senecio isatideus [50]." [AlkChem&Bio13]

References

• AlkChem&Bio10 - The Alkaloids: Chemicals and Biological Perspectives, Volume 10
• AlkChem&Bio13 - The Alkaloids: Chemicals and Biological Perspectives, Volume 13
• E-flora -
  • [1] Senecio jacobaea, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Senecio%20jacobaea&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 24, 2017
  • [2] Senecio pseudoarnica, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Senecio%20pseudoarnica&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 24, 2017
  • [3] Senecio sylvaticus, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Senecio%20sylvaticus&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 24, 2017
  • [4] Senecio vulgaris, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Senecio%20vulgaris&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 29, 2017
  • [5] Senecio triangularis, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Senecio%20triangularis&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 29, 2017
  • [6] Senecio viscosus, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Senecio%20viscosus&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 29, 2017
• [Jepson] 2013. Senecio, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=604, accessed on Jan 22 2015
• PFAF - Plants for a Future
  • Senecio jacobaea, http://www.pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Senecio+jacobaea, Accessed Jan 29, 2017
  • Senecio pseudoarnica, http://www.pfaf.org/USER/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Senecio+pseudoarnica, Accessed Jan 29, 2017
  • Senecio sylvaticus, http://www.pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Senecio+sylvaticus, Accessed Jan 29, 2017
  • Senecio viscosus, http://www.pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Senecio+viscosus, Accessed Jan 29, 2017
  • Senecio vulgaris http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Senecio+vulgaris, Accessed Jan 29, 2017